Review_Author: Maria Valvis
Book_Author: Colin Baker
Book_Title: Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
Date: 5/10/99
Time: 3:43:13 PM
Remote Name: 216.192.111.143
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BOOK REVIEW
FOUNDATIONS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM BY COLIN BAKER
In the first chapters of the book, the author defines all the terms related to the subject of Bilingual Education. I will ignore them in my review. I will concentrate in the material that is relevant to the subject rather than the definitions. Baker used two models to define Language Competence. Model One, Canale and Swain's Model of Language Competence: linguistic (syntax and vocabulary), sociolinguistic (use of appropriate language in different situations), discourse (ability to participate in conversation and read sizable written texts), and strategic (improvisation with language when there is a difficulty in communication). These are the four components of Language Competence according to Canale and Swain. Model Two, Bachman's Model of Language Competence. 1. Organizational Competence 1.1 Grammatical (Syntax and vocabulary) 1.2 Textual (Written and oral)
2. Pragmatic Competence 2.1 Illocutionary Competence (speech strategies, language functions) 2.2 Sociolinguistic Competence (sensitivity to register, dialect, cultural figures of speech)
Baker also tries to explain the relation between language and society. He defined people that speak a minority language in a majority language society as forming a language community of their own. Language communities do not exist in isolation of other language communities. I particularly liked the reference to Ofelia Garcia Language Garden: "If we travel through the countries of the world and found field after field, garden after garden of the same, one-color flower, how dull and boring our world would be" Within the same theme Baker gives a list of factors that encourage language maintenance and language loss. The factors are structure around the following topics. A. Political, social and Demographic Factors B. Cultural Factors C. Linguistic Factors
Baker writes about those factors that are more likely to revive a dying language: economic, social, symbolic, demographic, institutional support, religion. Baker explains the two routes to bilingualism: simultaneous (which occurs up to the age of three when two languages are acquired consecutively) and sequential (through formal education of informal paths). He thinks that the one parent, one language approach is very efficient. Each parent speaks a different language to the child. The age factor, Some research support the notion that young children learn a language more easily and successfully. Others argue that older children and younger adults learn a language more efficiently and quickly. Later on in the book, Baker moves toward different frameworks of second language acquisition. 1. Spolsky's framework. "All second language learning takes place in a social context" The social context is further influenced by attitudes (which led to motivation) and leaning opportunities. Personal Characteristics such as age personality, capabilities and previous knowledge in interaction with motivation frame the use an individual makes of learning opportunities. 2. Ellis' (1985) framework. There are five inter-related factors that govern the acquisition of second language: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and linguistic output.
Theories of Second Language Acquisition. 1. Socio-psychological theories. Lambert's Model: combines both the individual and the societal elements of bilingualism. 1.1 Individual's attitudes and aptitudes toward the language. 1.2 Motivation 1.3 A person's bilingual proficiency and self concept 2. Gardner's socio-Educational Model: Attitudes and motivation to learn a second language are crucial ingredients. His model has four stages. 2.1 Social and cultural context of language learning 2.2 Individual differences 2.3 Formal and informal environment where the language is acquired
It is important to keep in mind that Baker interrelates bilingualism and second language acquisition through the book. He considers them both like brother and sister. Krashen theory of second language acquisition: 1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: acquisition is informal, learning is formal 2. The Natural Order hypothesis: grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order 3. The Monitor hypothesis: monitor as an editing device 4. The Input hypothesis: acquisition as a result of language input and not of language production 5. The Affective Filter hypothesis: a filter that determines how much a person learns.
Baker explains the relationship between bilingualism and intelligence and bilingualism and thinking. Recent theories prove that there is a positive relation between bilingualism and cognitive functioning. Baker and the Balance theory. Balance and balloon picture theories of bilingualism and cognition appears to be held by many peoples. In the balloon theory, bilingual people have two language balloons inside the head. Each representing a language. As the acquisition of the second language progress the first language balloon diminishes in size. Cummins(1980a) refers to this phenomenon as the Separate Underlying Model of Bilingualism. The model conceives the two languages operating independly of each other, no transfer. There are many researchers that disagree with this model. It seems to be transfer from the first language to the second and viceverse. Certain types of bilingual education appear to result in performance advantage. Also there is enough research to prove that the brain has enough capacity to support no only two but many more languages. Lessons or skills learned in one language can and are easily transferred to other languages. A mathematical concept can be transferred if the languages are well developed, and this reasoning is proved with the Common Underlying Proficiency model of bilingualism of Cummins. The model is represented in the form of two icebergs. The idea behind being that the two languages are separated above the surface but underneath the surface they are fused. Both languages operated through the same central processing system. Another theory, The Thresholds theory is portrayed as a house. In the bottom floor are the children whose current competence in both languages is below their age group with negative or detrimental cognitive effects. At the middle levels are the children with age-appropriate competence in one language, but not in both. The child will be little different than the monolingual child in cognitive competence. At the top floor of the house are the children that are age-appropriate competence in both languages. There are positive cognitive advantages over the monolingual children. Following the same steps but going even further is what Cummins regards as essential in the bilingual education of children. "Children cognitive skills in the second language need to be sufficiently well developed to cope with the curriculum processes of the classroom" He suggest two communicative proficiency dimensions. The fist dimension refers to the amount of contextual support available to a student, communicative support. In the second dimension is the level of cognitive demands required in communication. Cummins theory suggests that bilingual education will be successful when children have enough first or second language proficiency to work in the context reduced, cognitively demanding situation of the classroom. For him, it takes 2 to 3 years for a child to acquire context-embedded second language fluency, but five to seven years or more to acquire context-reduced fluency. Baker describes the curriculum relevance of the previous information in details
Previous learning is very important and helpful both for the child and the teacher.
Baker suggests the following curriculum tasks for the bilingual child: 1. cognitive demands inherent in the task 2. form of presentation of the task, could be reduced or embedded 3. child's language proficiency 4. child's experience, individual learning styles and strategies
Baker tries to answer the following question: Is bilingual education effective? He cited many contradictory researches. But, seven out of 10 experts rejected the idea that there was support for connecting bilingual education to long term outcomes. It is very difficult to reach a conclusion in the subject, the studies are contradictory. It is important to take into consideration many factors in order to answer the question. Political, social, family, individual factors. Also the school, the teachers, parents, and children themselves. There is not wrong or right answer according to Baker. There are about 10 different bilingual education programs. Minority language classroom where the first language and heritage culture is promoted and developed. As represented in the dual iceberg analogy, skills acquired in the first language are easily transferred to the second. Second Language Learning. Reasons to learn a second language are ideological, international, or/ and individual. Cummins proposed a theoretical framework for bilingual education for minority students: Empowered Minority Language Children Disable Minority Language Children Dimension 1: Additive: Incorporation of home language Home language and culture excluded And culture in the school from the school Dimension 2: Collaborative exclusionary community participation community, no participation Dimension 3: Reciprocal transmission oriented interaction curriculum curriculum Dimension 4: Advocacy Oriented Legitimizacion oriented Assessment and diagnosis assessment and diagnosis
This theoretical framework incorporates psychological functioning and educational attainment. It also included a focus on the social, economic and political background. The limitations are that bilingual education is in constant movement and change. Bilingual education is closely related to politics. Three perspectives of language that is the minds of the people involved in the process, politicians: 1. Language as a problem, problem that can be solved by assimilating the minorities into the majority language. 2. language as a right, individual rights to choice a language 3. Language as a resource, personal and national. Cultural and economic benefit. Language is a powerful symbol of heritage and identity, and is also connected with integration into the community. Conclusion: Underneath weak and strong forms of bilingual education lie different views about language communities, ethnic minorities and language itself.
The last chapter of the book is about multiculturalism. Two languages and two cultures enable a person to have dual or multiple perspectives in society. As an ideal, a multicultural person has a positive attitude toward the assimilated culture and their native one. They have more respect and understanding for other people. They are less racist. Baker says that the danger in the bilingual school is to focus on two languages and cultures rather than in many cultures. He writes about racism in the school and how denigrating it is for all the students. He encouraged the school to try to combat racism. He concluded his views of assimilation versus bilingualism with the following statements based on personal orientation and political objectives. Some see language as a problem while others see it as a resource. The first group sees in the classroom the place where language and cultural differences will be dissolved. For the others, the school is a place where to celebrate diversity.
Conclusions: 1. Duality of language, ability and use. Linguistic and social; competence and communication. 2. Becoming bilingual is a linguistic, social and a psychological event. 3. Successful cognitive operations in the classroom will depend on matching curriculum tasks with language competence. Sensitivity to the need for contextual support and the cognitive demands of a classroom are important if an individual is to maximize learning in the curriculum. 4. It is very difficult to reach a conclusion in the subject of how effective is bilingual education, the studies are contradictory. It is important to take into consideration many factors in order to answer the question. Political, social, family, individual factors. Also the school, the teachers, parents, and children themselves. There is not wrong or right answer according to Baker. There are about 10 different bilingual education programs. 5. Language is a powerful symbol of heritage and identity, and is also connected with integration into the community. 6. Underneath weak and strong forms of bilingual education lie different views about language communities, ethnic minorities and language itself.
He concluded his views of assimilation versus bilingualism with the following statements based on personal orientation and political objectives. "Some see language as a problem while others see it as a resource. The first group sees in the classroom the place where language and cultural differences will be dissolved. For the others, the school is a place where to celebrate diversity."