Publishing Web for Students' Final Papers
Publishing Web for Students' Final Papers |
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From: Marni Williamson
Email: marniana@cats.ucsc.edu
Course: psych 100G: Diversity in development
College: U.C. Santa Cruz
Instructor: Eugene Matusov
ClassWeb: http://www.ematusov.com/psych100G
ChildrenObservations: No
Date: 13 Jan 1997
Time: 17:12:40
Remote Name: ss1-pc12.ucsc.edu
As our society is finally coming to acknowledge its great diversity, it is more apparent than ever that we need to make some changes in order to better accomodate the diverse needs of our society. One institution which is in particular need of such changes is our school system. We need to change to suit the needs of each and every student equally in order to maximize the learning experience for all of our students and in turn, better prepare them for the world. Some of the changes proposed in this paper include the implementation of collaborative learning programs as well as the integration of computer technology into the classroom.
Recent decades have witnessed the emergence of new theories of learning and education. Cognitive paradigms that were formerly regarded as universal have been shown to be, in fact, a product of a unique cultural and historical context.
Psychologists Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) developed the concept of scaffolding as "the basis for a theoretical model of the teacher in informal education" (Greenfield, 1984, p.118). Until recently, this model of teacher-student interaction was believed to be a universal pattern of learning; the discovery of other patterns of instruction such as guided participation (Rogoff, 1995) proved that the scaffolding model is not generalizable to all cultures.
Anthropologist Alfred Luria's landmark study of formal reasoning across cultures also changed the face of educational theory (1976). His findings challenged the Western assumption that the syllogism is the universal paragon of rational thought and reasoning. His studies of illiterate cultures showed that cognitive processes are embedded within one's sociohistorical context and cannot be judged by a universal standard. He also showed that formal schooling itself impacts the ways in which people think and learn.
These theoretical innovations were facilitated by a philosophical movement towards Soros' (1995) notion of reflexivity. The realization that thought and reality are intertwined - that how we think about something impacts that object itself - has transformed the former belief that there is one right way of doing things into a quest for learning from diversity. Rather than fitting actual learning processes into preconceived theories and models, educators and researchers are uncovering the interdependence of theory and reality. Hopefully this will lead to a more open-minded view of education in which no single "right" prototype of learning and teaching is forced on others, and judgments are free from the current ideological hegemony of the Western world.
The post-modern world is filled with uncertainties due to collapses of scientific and moral "truths" as well as to the rapid dissolution of borders between cultures. There is no longer one right way, no longer one authority on any given subject. It should follow the that there be a shift from adult-run classrooms where the teacher supposedly has all the answers, to a classroom in which everyone is expected to have something to contribute, everyone's voice is heard and valued. Students and educators from diverse backgrounds have things to learn from and to teach one another. There is no room in post-modern classroom for the narrow definition of what makes an ideal student - the white, middle class, English-proficient mold (DeLashmutt & Braund, 1996). At long last, we are coming to acknowledge the vast variation throughout the classroom and must find ways to accomidate the diversities of our students and in so doing, maximize the learning experience for each and every one of them.
One theory which is becoming more influential is the theory of different learning and teaching styles. In Sterberg’s article, “Allowing for thinking styles” (1994), he argues that what is often seen as a lack of ability is in fact just a mismatch in styles. Sternberg found that the students tended to be more succesful if their style matched that of the teacher. For obvious reasons, it is necessary for teachers to modify their styles to accomidate all of their students in order to give them all an equal chance. Kane (1995) makes a similar argument. She discusses different styles of reading she has found among children. Kane insists that teachers need to listen to their students, be aware of their differences and adjust current teaching methods, as she concludes that current methods are not as effective as they should be. According to Sternberg, it is possible for teachers to modify their styles, which he points out are in fact just preferences. He states that teachers are able to change, and recommends systematically varying teaching styles to offer a wide and constantly changing variety of styles.
In addition, Sternberg (1994) and Guild (1994) found a cultural variation of learning and teaching styles. Sternberg found certain style characteristics (judicial, oligarchic, local, and conservative) more common among children from lower socioeconomic levels. Guild explains the need to adopt the essential approaches to work with these differences most effectively. Guild underlines the importance of such a change, insisting that it is imperative to prevent cultural confict. Creating and maintaining a sucessful multicultural program, Guild points out, will require “a better understanding of the relationship between culture and learning styles” (p. 16).
"African Americans, Asian Americans, Puerto Ricans/Latinos, and Native Americans have all been the victims of an intellectual and educational oppression that has characterized the culture and institutions of the United States and the European world for centuries," states the New York task force to revive the school history curriculum (DeLashmutt & Braund, 1996). There must be a shift towards inclusion. DeLashmutt and Braund go so far as to propose that African Americans should have their own language in which they are taught, and should learn English as a second language. Indeed, today’s world calls for deconstruction of the classroom as we have known it. As post modern scholar Johnella Butler puts it, "the colonization of minds [has been] characteristic of American education" (DeLashmutt & Braund, 1996). In our rapidly changing world, this can no longer be the case; our classrooms simply must keep up with the changing needs of our society.
One possible alternative to the traditional classroom would be a less restrictive learning environment. For instance, the collaborative learning environment involves aspects such as social interaction, individual exploration of subjects, room for creativity, and acknowledgement of different learning styles. In the past it was thought that "students do not control knowledge, but rather must write their student roles and scenarios in conformity to the teacher's master script" (DeLashmutt & Braund, 1996). In this evolving classroom, creativity is valued in order to encourage diverse viewpoints. Emotions and intuitions are acknowledged, instead of squelched in the name of imposing one "reality" on the students. Traditional education had the goal of taking individuals and pouring them into a culturally-defined mold. The post-modern classroom has a new mission: to strive for diversity, equality, and tolerance through inclusion, acceptance, and the broadening of horizons. As we strive to make these changes towards inclusion, however, we realize that there is a great deal of resistance to such change.
In his book How Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in American Classrooms 1880-1990, Larry Cuban (1993) discusses the ways schools have resisted the trend towards a more diverse and inclusive perspective on learning. He cites John Dewey as describing this resistance as "largely atmospheric", meaning that attitudes towards educational policy are often a function of one's surroundings. For example, teachers in rural, conservative, homogenous communities may lack the administrative support, funding, and cultural experience to bring diversity into the classroom. Cuban reviews studies which suggest that it is hard for teachers to go against the grain. In traditional schools and classrooms, teachers may have trouble breaking the mold - especially when they lack the resources and knowledge to implement changes. But the teachers who have the support of their school districts are more likely to switch successfully to non-traditional styles of teaching.
Aside from lack of support and funding, educational reform is further inhibited by the prevailing assumption that the teacher loses control over the students in non-traditional classroom settings. For example, collaborative learning, which depends on a pluralistic form of discussion, is a threat to the authority of teachers who are accustomed to traditional, adult-centered classroom organization. Cuban also points out that the traditional classroom setup is more convenient and efficient for teachers with limited time and increasing class sizes.
Michael Kelly (1995) points out that it is because of the increasing class size and teachers’ limited time that it is so important that we do make some changes. He argues that the use of computers in the classroom could help to remedy such a problem. Most people would agree that computers could be very useful tools in the classroom. However, a problem with introducing computers into the classroom is that not all teachers would be comfortable with it. One reason is that the introduction of computers into the classroom would probably mean a loss in teacher control. Also, because so many teachers do not have adequate computer education and experience, they might be hesitant to use computers in their classroom. Other barriers exist as well, such as the cost of implementing such a program in addition to the fact that some researchers, such as Jordan, et al (1994) are not convinced that the computers are really effective in the classroom.
While Kelly (1995) and Gifford (1993) acknowledge that teachers may initially feel threatened by the introduction of computers into the classroom, they offer some suggestions to decrease the teachers’ hesitation. They suggest that first, some fundamental changes must take place in the classroom in order to make the transition a smooth and successful one. Some of these changes involve the teacher’s role, education and the school culture. Gifford argues that “the successful use [of computers] is inhibited by a school culture that does not support collaboration among teachers” (p. 102). He supports the trend toward a more collaborative classroom and feels it would help in incorporating computers into the classroom. In addition, computer education and training needs to be made available to teachers in order to decrease the threat that computers might otherwise hold. Both Gifford and Sternberg agree that with the proper preparation, computers would prove to be a very effective tool in the classroom.
In conclusion, today we are acknowledging and appreciating individual differences within our society. It is imperative that we work to help our schools to keep up with the changing needs of our students in order to do our best to prepare them for the society they will some day be taking over.
REFERENCES
Cuban, L. (1993). How Teachers Taught: Consistency and Change in American Classrooms, 1880-1990. New York: Longman.
DeLashmutt, G. & Braund, R. (1996). The Postmodern Method, Education (Ch. 6); http://www.crossrds.org/doteduc.htm
Gifford, B.R. (1993). From Bowlerama to the classroom: part four, getting form here to there. (changes necessary for more effective use of technology in the classroom). Business Week, n3345: 102
Greenfield, P.M. (1984). A theory of the teacher in the learning activities of everyday life. In B. Rogoff and J. Lave (Eds.) Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Griffin, P. & Cole, M. (1984). Current activity for the future: the Zo-ped. In B. Rogoff and J. Wertsch (Eds.), New Directions for Child Development, 23: 45-63. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jordan, D.L. Sanchez, P.M. (1994). Traditional versus technology-aided instruction: the effects of visual stimulus in the classroom. The Teacher v27, n1:64.
Kane, Sharon (1995). My children became my teachers: developing a philosophy of reading. Reading Teacher, v48, n6:530.
Kelly, M. (1995). Stop Pushing educational technology-pull. Georgia Institute of Technology (http://fairway.ecn.pudue.edu/fre/asee/fie95/3c3/3c35/3c35.htm)
Rogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: participatory appropriation, guided participation, apprenticeship. In J.V. Wertsch, P. del Rio, A. Alvarez (Eds.) Sociocultural Studies of Mind. Cambridge, UK: cambridge University Press.
Soros, G. (1995). The failed philosopher (interview with B. Wien). In G. Soros, B. Wien, & K. Koenen (eds.) Soros on Soros: 209-236. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sternberg, R.J. (1994). Allowing for thinking styles. (Strategies for Success). Educational Leadership v52, n3: 36-40.
Wood, D.J., Bruner, J.S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17: 89-100.
