From: chuck s.
Email:
Course: CD 169: MOTIVATION
College: San Jose State University
Instructor: E. Matusov
ClassWeb: http://www.ematusov.com/cd169
ChildrenObservations: No
Date: 23 May 1997
Time: 21:08:42
Remote Name: cust108.max14.san-francisco2.ca.ms.uu.net
Adolescence is a time of preparation for the roles of adulthood. Recently attention has been paid to the development and expression of achievement during these years. Broadly defined, achievement concerns the development of motives, capabilities, interests and behavior that have to do with performance in evaluative situations (Steinberg, 1990). During adolescence this evaluative process takes place in an educational setting. To what degree do schools take responsibility for an individual's achievement or lack of? How does the family fit into the puzzle?
Achievement in school is extremely important in American society. Because America is an industrialized nation we place much emphasis on achievement, competition and success moreso than cooperation (McClelland, 1961). During adolescence and childhood testing in school becomes commonplace in order to distinguish one student from another. In most industrialized societies, the amount of education and job title are the two most distinguishing indicators of achievement. For example, in America being a doctor seems much more valuable than a office clerk.
One of the longest-standing notions in the study of achievement is that individuals differ in the extent to which they strive for success and that this differential striving - which can be measured independently of sheer ability- helps account for different degrees of actual achievement (Steinberg, 1990). For example, if two students perform equally well on an intelligence test, the student who puts forth more effort in school will generally have higher evaluations. The extent to which a student strives for success is described by McClelland as the need for achievement (1961). This "need" generally originates from extrinsic motivation provided by parents through standard setting, rewards and emphasized autonomy. Along with the extrinsic motivation comes the parenting style used by the parents which is extremely important.
Adolescents exert different degrees of effort according to the task assigned. Often this is due to the confidence level involved in that particular area. If a teenager believes they are capable of doing something, effort is exerted. If they believe the end result will be failure, little efforts takes place. Students who are led to believe that their efforts do not make a difference - by being told, for example, that they are stupid or that work is too difficult for them - develop learned helplessness: the belief that their failure is inevitable (Dweck and Light, 1980). This results in students giving little effort to a given task and whenever challenged with this task they provide a disclaimer of incompetence.
Recent studies indicate that there are ethnic differences in school achievement above and beyond those attributed to socioeconomic status. In general, Asian-American adolescents outperform Anglo-American students, who in turn do better in school than African-American and Hispanic- American students. One reason for the superior performance of Asian students could be the likelihood of holding beliefs about achievement that are predictive of success in school. According to Steinberg (1990), Asian-American youngsters not only believe in the value of school success, but are very anxious about the possible negative repercussions of not doing well in school, both in terms of occupational success and in terms of their parents disappointment. Asian cultures, according to Hess (1987), place a higher emphasis on effort than ability in explaining school success.
Achievement means different things to different people. In America, achievement often is measured by wealth and prestige. Many of the differences in academic or occupational achievement observed among adolescents are not due to differences in adolescents' abilities, motives, or beliefs (Steinberg, 1990), but to differences in the environments in which these abilities and motives are expressed. School organizations differ from place to place. Anything from school size to impoverished districts could make a difference in a child's achievement by making academic success almost impossible. A school is not the only environment that makes a difference in adolescent achievement, if anything important aspects of home environment are better predictors of adolescents' academic achievement. According to many researchers, authoritative households produce more confident and capable students than passive or authoritarian households. Steinberg (1990) believes authoritative parenting promotes the development of a healthy achievement orientation - including an emphasis on intrinsic motivation - which in turn facilitates adolescent school performance. Strong encouragement, supportive peers and a functional school community often high achieving students.
References
Dweck, C., and Light, B. (1980). Learned helplessness and intellectual achievement. In J. Garber and M. Seligman (Eds.), Human helplessness. New York: Academic Press.
Hess, R., Chih-Mei, C., and Mcdevitt, T. (1987). Cultural variations in family beliefs about children's performance in mathematics: Comparisons among People's Republic of China, Chinese- American, and Caucasian-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 179-188.
McClelland, D. (1961). The achieving society. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand.
Steinberg, L. (1990). Adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill.