From: Tracy L. Nelson
Email: mackjr3@Aol.com
Course: cd169:Motivating children and adolescents in educational settings
College: SJSU
Instructor: Eugene Matusov
ClassWeb: http://www.ematusov.com/cd169
ChildrenObservations: No
Date: 24 May 1997
Time: 01:52:17
Remote Name: cust47.max3.santa-clara.ca.ms.uu.net
Gender roles and stereotypes have been a much debated issue not only in C.D. 169 but, also with educators and equal rights activist . At the center of the debate is the question of whether gender differences are inborn, genetic traits or are manufactured social characteristics. It seems as though the genders are on opposite sides of the spectrum, with males being masculine and females being feminine. In this paper I will attempt to answer this question. Then we will look at how parents contribute to the process of gender identity. Next we will explore how educators support and fuel the fire of gender stereotypes. Finally we will review how parents and educators can ensure that every child grows up to be a productive, secure adult.
There have been huge debates regarding the question of gender roles. What makes men and women learn, think and behave differently? Are females naturally nurturing and males naturally tough? Is it hormones or socialization that cause the differences in gender roles? Most experts and parents would agree that boys and girls do seem to act differently. So then the question is why?
Hormonal influences in gender behavior.
One explanation is that all sex differences can be attributed to biological variations between males and females. Money and Ehrhardt proposed that there are a number of critical events that will affect a person's eventual preference for the masculine or the feminine sex role (Shaffer, 1994). The first critical event takes place at conception when the child inherits either an X or Y chromosome from the father. If a Y chromosome is present, the embryo develops testes; otherwise, ovaries will form. In the second event the testes of a male embryo secrete two hormones: testosterone and mullerian inhibiting substance, which inhibits the development of female organs. If these two hormones are absent, the embryo develops the reproductive system of a female. The third critical point occurs three to four months after conception when a secretion of testosterone leads to the growth of the penis and scrotum. If testosterone is absent external female organs form.
Some experts believe that the variation in hormones among female and male fetuses impact both anatomical and behavioral effects. For example in one study scientist injected pregnant rhesus monkeys with the male hormone testosterone and observed that the female off spring showed male like external genitalia and pattern of social behaviors normally more characteristic of males(Young, Goy, &Phoenix, 1964). These monkeys were observed playing in a more rough way, threatening other monkeys, and initiating sexual behavior. In another experiment, female rat pups received testosterone injections during the first three days of life. Again masculine traits where observed. They also found the lack of testosterone, created the opposite effect, with castrated pups exhibiting feminine qualities. There appears to be sufficient evidence within different animal species that hormone levels are associated with activity levels, aggression and maternal behavior. These hormonal differences are also seen in human beings. For example, in the case of male identical twins. One of the twins penis was damaged beyond repair during a blotched circumcision. The parents decided to anatomically change their 21 month old son into a girl. After the operation, the family began treat her exclusively as a female. By 5 years old the girl twin acted very differently from her brother. She not only knew she was a girl but also had distinct preferences for feminine toys, activities, and clothing. She also had acquired feminine mannerisms. At five, she appeared to be a normal, adjusted female child. However at thirteen, her psychiatrist reported she was a very maladjusted young girl, who was uncomfortable with her female role and wanted to be a mechanic. This finding leads to the conclusion that hormones play a big role in determining gender identity.
The role of Socialization in gender identity
From the moment a child is brought into this world they are mainly identified as a boy or a girl. Thus, the socialization process has begun. They are brought home and put in a room which is very male with dinosaurs, trucks and blue teddy bears or female with bunnies and pink teddy bears. Sex role socialization begins very early as parents provide their infants with gender appropriate clothing, toys, and hairstyles (Shaffer, 1994). In one study, it was found that 98% of shoppers bought boys "male" toys like trucks and blocks (Jones, 1996). They also found that toy makers, will push male and female versions of the same toy. Lego now carries blocks in both the traditional male colors and pastel feminine colors for girls. Children are bombarded with messages about who they are as males or females. Even though infants aren't able to initially identify gender, they are treated in gender specific ways. It has been shown that parents and strangers treat the infants differently depending upon their perceived sex.
In understanding sex role differences it is important to understand how children learn. Their are several theories as to how children develop sex role identities. Social-learning theory, cognitive developmental theory, and gender schema theory are the three we will take a closer look at.
Social learning theorist suggest that children learn sex roles and gender identity through two ways. The first is direct tuition, in which children are either reinforced or punished for the sex role. For example if a girl is playing in an aggressive manor, teachers, parents and peers will send a very strong message that it is inappropriate. However, if she is dressed up, playing with her dolls in a passive way, she will receive positive reinforcement. In one study done by Judith Langlois and Chris Downs, they compared the reactions of mothers, fathers, and peers to 3 -5 year-olds who were asked to play with either same-sex or cross-sex toys. Fathers showed the clearest pattern by rewarding children for playing with the same-sex items while actively suppressing cross-sex play. Interestingly mothers showed a similar pattern with their daughters but permitted their sons to play with either masculine or feminine toys. They also found that peers were very critical of children who played with cross-sex toys, they often ridiculed the child or disrupted the inappropriate play(Shaffer, 1994). The second way children learn children learn about their identity and appropriate sex related behaviors is through observations of role models. Children watch adults and peers of the same sex to conclude how they should behave. For example a child may observe that mommy is a girl and she wears dresses, make-up, and carries a purse and I'm a girl so I should do these things, too.
Kohlberg's Cognitive-Development theory gives a different explanation of why boys and girls take on traditional sex roles. He believes that sex role development depends on cognitive ability to understand gender and how it effects ones' self. Kohlberg also believes that children play a major role in socializing themselves. He claims that children pass through three stages. First they establish a gender identity, they will identify themselves as a boy or girl. Next, is gender stability, they realize that boys grow up to be men and girls grow up to be women. Last is gender consistency, they understand that not only is gender stable across time but also across situations. A boy dressed like a girl doesn't mean they changed to a girl. He concludes that children seek out gender specific toys and behaviors once they have a strong sense of gender and are in the third stage.
In the gender schema theory Carol Martin and Charles Halverson suggest more of a information-procesing hypothesis. They, like kohlgerg believe that children are inclined to participate in behaviors which support their cognitive beliefs about themselves. However they feel this process begins much earlier, around 2 /1/2 to 3 years when the child is first developing a gender identity. Martin and Halverson argue that children categorize different sex roles into either a boy behavior or a girl behavior. For example, if a young girl see's her mother washing dishes, she will label this behavior as female and is more likely to remember it that something she labels as male.
After reviewing these three theories it is most likely not just one but a combination of all three that explain how children learn sex differences and sex-role development.
Problems related to sex roles.
The problems that resolve around gender differences seem to stem from the devaluing of one set of characteristics from another. For example if feminine traits had the same value placed on them as masculine traits, both sexes, although different would feel equally valued and important. This is not the case in the United States. Although, biological and social influences direct women and men to adopt appropriate gender role behavior, masculine traits are obviously more valued. This is when the problem arises. Humans are highly individual and should not be restricted into playing rigid gender roles. By looking at education and careers, it is apparent that people are limited in their choices because of their gender. I would like to take a closer look at how schools contribute to gender handicaps.
It has been shown that teachers along with the rest of society treat girls and boys differently. Different treatment would not necessarily cause a negative effect, except that this "different" treatment places a higher value on boys. From the time children enter preschool, they are being prepared to learn distinctively different academic material. Since at this age children learn through play, the materials provided for children is the foundation. It has been found that "boys" toys promote exploration and experimentation. By using toys with motion and direction such as trucks, carts, and scooters, with balance , such as blocks, and legos, with electricity and chemical properties such as science kits, and with tools and simple machines, such as robots; boys are being prepped to excel in technology, science and higher mathematics. Girls on the other hand play with toys that prepare them for beginning reading and writing , as well as for the discipline school demands. Girls' toys encourage good eye-hand coordination, attention to detail, and small muscle development. The manipulations with dolls and small toys, such as tying, buttoning, unbuttoning, cutting, and pasting prepare girls to recognize small differences. This is crucial for the development of reading skills. Girls are often encouraged to play house with dolls. Again this play prepares girls for reading and writing and also for stereotypical adult female roles (Greenberg, 1986). However by not participating in a more balanced curriculum both sexes miss out on on developing other important skills and potential fulfillment.
Once children enter elementary school, boys and girls have already had different experiences. As discussed previously, because of their experiences in preschool, girls have better developed verbal skills and there for have an easier time meeting stricter standards of control (Greenberg, 1986). A negative consequence of better control is less attention from the teacher. According to a 1992 report by The American Association of University Women's landmark, girls receive less attention from teachers than boys. They found that the "idea of girls as studious, well-behaved pupils can work against them in the classroom, where teachers may unwittingly give more attention to the most aggressive students, usually the boys( Walker, 1993). "
Other problems have also been noted, such as stereotypical images of women in books and a lack of female role models. The 1992 study also found that although girls and boys have an equal number of learning disabilities, boys are twice as likely to be identified as needing special help. Another problem found in the classroom was the interactions with the teacher. Different behavior was expected from girls. Where as boys were allowed to call out answers, girls were discouraged of this behavior. They found that teachers expect different things from boys and girls and the feed back reflects strongly what is most desirable from each gender. Boys are expected to be strong, unemotional, aggressive, and to be leaders where as girls are expected be weak, emotional, submissive and passive. This is reflected within classrooms where teachers expect male students to do well in math and science (two subjects considered masculine) and girls are expected to excel in reading and social skills (two areas considered feminine).
Teachers seem to expect less from girls with listening, raising their hands, and following directions being the main cause of praise. Research also found that girls are often not given corrective feedback even when they answer a question wrong. To the contrary, teachers give corrective feedback and praise boys more often. This inconsistent and discouraging feedback from teachers puts girls at a high risk for learned helplessness, a lack of academic perseverance that causes girls to feel powerless, hesitant to volunteer answers, and more reliant on teachers for guidance(Walker,1993). As girls grow older, they become less sure of themselves, this is reflected when they answer questions, and start with the phrase, "I don't know, " or "I may be wrong, but"( CQ Researcher, 1994). Apparently the constant lack of attention and feed back from teachers, erodes the females self confidence and self esteem. The lack of a balanced curriculum and unequal treatment is detrimental for everyone.
After taking a closer look at the classroom and the messages that are given, it isn't difficult to understand the under repesentation of males and females in certain careers. For, research has found that even when girls do well in math and science they are much less likely than boys to pursue scientific or technological careers(Walker).
Helping to stop gender bias
Now that many problems have been pointed out, the question is what do we do about them? First, parents and educators must become aware of their own stereotypes. Many times parents and teacher are unaware of the sex roles they are promoting. Second, preschool teachers must change the curriculum to foster a non gender bias environment. Both girls and boys should be encourage to play with manipulative and in the doll corner. Everyone should be offered experiences that help develop a rounded, complete person. Next, elementary teachers must change their curriculum to meet the needs of all students. Children should be looked at as individual people with individual needs. Teachers need to review curricular material and evaluate the message being sent. For example, reports show that female role models are scarce. Out of the ten most popular English books assigned, only one was written by a women(Walker,1993). Although, the message is subtle, it is never the less sent and after a while all the subtle messages add up to a huge message. The bottom line is that everyone must become aware of and want to change the unequal treatment. . Discussion
In this paper we have reviewed the contributing factors involved in sex role behavior. I have concluded that neither hormones or socialization exclusively contribute to gender roles, but it is a combination of these two elements which create individual people. Different hormone levels are the initial start of sex role differences, followed by differential reinforcement with gender identified behaviors being supported by parents, teachers and other children. Next, cognitive awareness in which children become aware of their gender and of appropriate behavior for that gender and finally by modeling. Once children are aware of their gender they start to model masculine or feminine behavior.
For some, hormones may be the dominate feature, for others it may be environmental. Even after extensive research it may never be possible to specifically determine why the sexes are different. People are very individual and no one has the exact experiences. There for the focus should not be how different males and females are but an acceptance and valuing of the differences between individuals. I argue that providing a well balanced curriculum with feminine, masculine and sex neutral experiences will allow individuals to find the area in which fits them.
References
Chira, S., (1992). How Boys & Girls learn differently. Red book, Sep. 191-192, 194-195.
QC Researcher, (1994), Education and Gender, June 3
Greenberg, Slema,(1986), Does scientific illiteracy begin in the doll corner?, Instructor, Nov/Dec, pp18, 20
Jacklin, Carol Nagy, Female and Male: Issues of Gender. American Psychologist, February, vol. 44, No. 2, 127-133
Jones, Marian, M (1996) Toy Story, Psychology Today, Dec.
IIardi, Barbara C., Bridges, Lisa J., (1988) Gender Differences in Self-system Processes as Rated by Teachers and Students. Sex roles, Nov. Vol.18,
Shaffer, D.R., Social & personality Development, third addition, 1994
Sroufe, A.L., Cooper, R.G., DeHart, G.B., Child development-its nature and course. Second edition, 1992
Walker, Michael, (1993), Gender bias: is your daughter's school prepping her for Failure? Better homes and Gardens, April, v71, n4, p40(2) internet: http://sbweb3.med.iacnet.com/infotrac